5. Environmental and energy aspects

5.1 Hydrogen production and distribution

Hydrogen can be produced by steam reforming of hydrogen-rich fuels. This process is highly energy-efficient, up to 90% (losses being mainly thermal). However, the CO ₂ emitted during this transformation is greater than the direct combustion of these fuels. Water electrolysis is the process which, if the electricity used is decarbonized, makes it possible to obtain green hydrogen. Electrolysis efficiency can reach 85% for large-scale PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) technology.

Hydrogen transport and distribution require storage in compressed or liquid form. Compression losses are of the order of 10 to 20% in energy for pressures between 300 and 700 bar. For hydrogen liquefaction,...

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Environmental and energy aspects

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Economic aspects

Bibliography

(1) - GRIMES (P.G.) - Historic pathways for fuel cells – The new electric century. - IEEE AES Systems Magazine, p. 7-10 (2000).
(2) - MOND (L.), LANGER (C.) - A new form of gas battery. - Phil. Mag., vol. 46, p. 296-304 (1889)....

Standards and norms

Hydrogen fuel – Product specification – Part 2: Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell applications for road vehicles. - ISO/TS 14687-2 - 2012
Hydrogen gas and hydrogen gas mixtures – Fuel tanks for land vehicles. - ISO/TS 15869 - 2009
Considérations fondamentales pour la sécurité des systèmes à l'hydrogène. - ISO/TR 15916 - 2004
Transportable gas storage devices – Hydrogen absorbed in a reversible...

Regulations

In addition to the traditional type-approval rules for combustion-powered vehicles and the rules relating to the electrification of the propulsion system, fuel cell vehicles are subject to specific European regulations, such as EC 79/2009 and its implementing directive 406/2010. These two regulations require proof of the hydrogen system's operational safety. They also require "type-approval" for the most sensitive components...