1. The constraints of the energy transition

The problems associated with energy consumption are exacerbated by the continuing growth in demand, driven in particular by population growth. The world's population is set to rise from 7.9 billion in 2021 to around 9.7 billion in 2050, according to the UN's mid-range scenario. .

In addition, per capita primary energy consumption rises as living standards improve. It should rise from 1.7 toe (tonne of oil equivalent – energy released by one tonne of oil, i.e. 41.8 GJ) to around 2.2 toe per inhabitant per year in 2030, if current trends continue.

The number of vehicles worldwide, which was 220 million in 1970 and currently stands at around 1 billion,...