General introduction

The technological, economic and social spheres have been transformed by four industrial revolutions:

• the first industrial revolution took place from the late 18th to the late 19th century, with the invention of the steam engine, the mechanization of textile production, and the development of railways and canals;

• The second industrial revolution took place from the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, beginning with the discovery of electricity, the internal combustion engine, mass production and the invention of the telegraph and telephone;

• the third industrial revolution, which lasted from the middle to the end of the 20th century, was marked by the digital revolution, with the development of computers, electronics, automation, telecommunications and the Internet;

• The fourth industrial revolution, which we have been experiencing since the beginning of the 21st century, is characterized by the increasing integration of artificial intelligence, advanced robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT) and information and communication technologies (ICT) into our daily lives.

The third and fourth revolutions, which are driving today's energy and digital transitions, would never have been possible without the development of lithium-ion batteries. These batteries, which have become smaller and smaller, and whose energy density and lifespan have been steadily improving since their launch in 1991, are a cornerstone of e-mobility and connectivity (cell phones, laptops, small connected objects), as well as of electric mobility, since they are now the technology of choice for electric vehicles.

This series of articles in Techniques de l'Ingénieur takes a look at batteries, with a particular focus on lithium-ion batteries and recent developments in electrochemical energy storage inspired by advances in lithium-ion batteries. This series of articles brings together contributions from experts in three sections.