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Read the articleAUTHORS
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Jack ROBERT: Professor Emeritus, Université Paris Sud XI
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Jean ALZIEU: Research engineer at Électricité de France
INTRODUCTION
The advantages of lithium as an anode material were discussed in dossier [D 3 354] "Lithium batteries". These considerations also apply to sodium, with its low standard electrode potential (– 2.714 V/ENH, Table 1 in dossier [D 3 351] "Theoretical considerations") and low density (0.97 ). Finally, the melting temperature of sodium (98 ˚C) is lower than that of lithium (180.5 ˚C). It therefore appears that these two metals are, a priori, of roughly comparable interest. The promotion of sodium is the result of the discovery of ceramics that are inert to this alkali, allowing the sodium ion to circulate. These ceramics are commonly known as alumina .
Alkali metals react violently with water, so the use of non-aqueous electrolytes is essential. Two solutions are currently used: either a liquid medium consisting of molten salts or, in the case of sodium, a solid medium such as β-alumina. In all circumstances, the temperature of the accumulator must be maintained well above ambient temperature, typically in the 300 to 400 ˚C range, whether this is to reach the melting zone of the salts or to give the ceramic sufficient ionic conductivity. In the latter case, contact between the electrode material and the ceramic requires the presence of a liquid. This requires either a liquid electrode material, or a liquid "secondary" electrolyte sandwiched between the ceramic and the solid electrode. Accumulators based on these principles, known as "high-temperature" accumulators, are a recent development. Work on some of them has not been pursued, given the scale of the difficulties encountered.
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Bibliography
- - Pour faciliter la recherche des documents cités, les références bibliographiques concernent, pour l'essentiel, le « Journal of power sources » (J. Power Sources), le « Journal of the Electrochemical Society » (J. Electrochem. Soc.) et les actes du Colloque Gaston Planté 2000 (Paris, 30-31 octobre 2000). L'éditeur du « Journal of power sources » est Elsevier...
Legislative framework for batteries and accumulators
This legislative framework essentially concerns the thresholds not to be exceeded for hazardous products, as well as provisions for the disposal of used batteries.
Firstly, it is important to note that the texts refer to "batteries and accumulators". Considerations specific to accumulators have been extracted wherever possible.
1. European standards
...Treatment of hazardous substances
1. Mercury
The obligations imposed by Decree no. 91-1971 of December 29, 1999 have been met. According to the French Ministry of Ecology and Sustainable Development, whose representative replied to a written question (July 9, 2003), "The quantity of 12 tonnes of mercury present in batteries in France corresponds to the level at the beginning of the 1990s... As early as 1994, the mass of mercury...
Organizations concerned
1. Central government departments
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• Ministry of the Environment
Pollution and Risk Prevention Department (DPPR)
Products and Waste Sub-Directorate
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•...
Battery manufacturers (non-exhaustive list)
European battery manufacturers have joined forces to form the EUROBAT association ( http://www.eurobat.org ). The association comprises 37 companies, both regular and associate members, and represents over 85% of the European accumulator industry. The association describes itself as "the unified voice of...
Battery recycling
1. Lead-acid batteries
• Métal Blanc (Bourg Fidèle, 08)
• STCM (Toulouse, 31; Bazoches, 45)
• APSM (Brenouille, 60)
2. Nickel-based batteries
• SNAM (France)
...
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