Bibliographie & annexes
Présentation
English
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article traite de la méthode de collage direct encore nommée adhésion moléculaire en dévoilant les phénomènes et les mécanismes qui permettent d’adhérer sans colle. Il s’intéresse aux cas de la silice et du silicium, car ce sont les matériaux les plus étudiés et physiquement les mieux compris à ce jour. Les points fondamentaux qui autorisent l’adhésion spontanée en termes de qualité (rugosités, planéités), de recouvrement et de propreté des surfaces sont détaillés dans une première partie. Puis les méthodes de caractérisation des forces d’adhésion lors du collage, et de l’adhérence, lors du désassemblage sont explorées. Enfin, les mécanismes physico-chimiques de l’adhérence et les traitements permettant de renforcer la tenue des assemblages sont décrites.
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Lire l’articleAuteur(s)
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Aurélien MAUREL-PANTEL : Senior Lecturer - Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, LMA, Marseille, France
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Frank FOURNEL : Research Director - CEA LETI, CEA, Grenoble, France
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Thierry BILLETON : Engineer - Laser Physics Laboratory (LPL UMR7538), CNRS, Villetaneuse, France
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Jérôme DEBRAY : Engineer - Néel Institute (UPR2940), Grenoble Alpes University, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Grenoble, France
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Christophe HECQUET : Engineer - Charles Fabry Laboratory (LCF UMR8501), CNRS, Palaiseau, France
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Anne TALNEAU : Research Director - Center for Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies (C2N UMR9001), CNRS, Palaiseau, France
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Frédéric LEBON : Professor - Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, LMA, Marseille, France
INTRODUCTION
Direct bonding technology, also known as molecular adhesion, is a very special type of assembly. Its most concise definition seems to be: "spontaneous bonding without the addition of thick liquid". The fact that no liquid is added implies, above all, that no polymeric liquid glue is used. It's a glueless assembly! The fact that it is "spontaneous" implies that the joining of the two surfaces saves energy, in order to propagate the direct bond.
The energy available to the system for bonding is called "adhesion energy". This is to be contrasted with adhesion energy (otherwise known as "bonding energy"), which represents the energy required to separate the assembled surfaces. Adhesion energy, on the other hand, is the energy that helps bring them together.
In direct bonding, to enable spontaneous bonding, the adhesion energy must be greater than the energy cost of bringing the surfaces together, i.e. greater than the elastic energy of deformation induced by the fact that the surfaces to be bonded will touch and come as close as possible, deforming as necessary. It is therefore necessary to have surfaces very close together, generally at a distance of the order of nanometers. At this scale, intermolecular forces between the two surfaces can come into play. This is why the technique is also known as "molecular adhesion". Direct bonding can be achieved by van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds and, in some cases, capillary forces: these forces are the driving force behind direct bonding. The mechanical energy of deformation, expended in bringing the surfaces together, acts as a brake.
For simplicity's sake, the article focuses on direct bonding of fused silica. This motor and brake are described in detail, enabling us to present the mechanisms of adhesion, and the criteria to be met in terms of surface specifications, or environment, to achieve adhesion. Adhesion energy determines the mechanical strength of the interface. In the final section, we describe the techniques used to maximize adhesion energy.
L'expertise technique et scientifique de référence
MOTS-CLÉS
adhésion Adhérence Silice Silicium assemblage collage direct
DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
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Acronyms, notations and symbols
English
5. Glossary
Atomic diffusion bonding (ADB)
A promising process for bonding wafers at room temperature: thin films are sputtered onto two flat wafer surfaces, then the two films are bonded to the wafers in a vacuum. In addition to thin metal films, thin oxide and nitride films are useful for bonding.
Énergie d'adhésion ; Adhesion energy
Energy used to bring surfaces together.
Adherence energy; Énergie d'adhérence
Energy required to separate joined surfaces (also known as bonding energy).
DCB test; Double Cantilever Beam test
Test consisting in propagating a crack by pulling on both arms of a double beam to measure Mode I toughness.
Fizeau interferometer; Fizeau interferometer
Precision optical tool invented in 1862 by Hippolyte Fizeau, still widely used for checking surfaces during manufacturing. It consists in observing the interference pattern produced by coherent light reflected both on a reference surface (such as a reference plane) and on the part to be inspected. The pattern produced by the two recombined beams resembles bangs of equal thickness (air wedge), and its digital processing enables fine control of local differences between the two surfaces.
RCA cleaning; RCA clean
Standardized set of wafer surface cleaning steps to be performed prior to high-temperature processing steps (oxidation, diffusion, CVD).
Plasma à couplage capacitif; Capacitively Coupled Plasma (CCP)
One of the most common types of industrial plasma source, it essentially consists of two metal electrodes separated by a small distance, placed in a reactor. The gas pressure in the reactor can be sub-atmospheric or atmospheric.
Plasma à couplage inductif; Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP)
A type of plasma source in which energy is supplied by electric currents produced by electromagnetic induction, i.e. by time-varying magnetic fields (also known as transformer-coupled plasma (TCP)).
Mechanochemical polishing; Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP)
Surface smoothing process using the combined action of mechanical and chemical forces. The process involves the combined action of the polishing cloth and the chemical and abrasive effects of the polishing solution, commonly known as slurry. The polishing pad is pressed onto the polishing cloth by the polishing head, on which it is held in place by a retaining ring. The polishing plate (on which the polishing cloth is mounted) and polishing head rotate, removing material and smoothing out any topography.
RMS rugosity; Root Mean Square rugosity
Roughness refers to the roughness and indentations of a surface measured in relation to the average surface, which is locally assimilated to a plane. The geometric characterization of this parameter is tricky because it is a statistical parameter that cannot be defined by a single measurement, and because it...
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Glossary
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
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(1) - WALLIS (G.), POMERANTZ (D.I.) - Field Assisted Glass-Metal Sealing. - In Journal of Applied Physics, 40(10), p. 3946‑3949 (1969). – 10.1063/1.1657121
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(2) - NESE (M.), HANNEBORG (A.) - Anodic bonding of silicon to silicon wafers coated with aluminium, silicon oxide, polysilicon or silicon nitride. - In Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 37, p. 61‑67 (1993). – 10.1016/0924-4247(93)80013-7
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(3) - RIEUTORD (F.), MORICEAU (H.), BENEYTON (R.), CAPELLO (L.), MORALES (C.), -CHARVET (A.-M.) - Rough Surface Adhesion Mechanisms for Wafer Bonding. - In ECS Transactions, 3(6), p. 205‑215 (2006). – 10.1149/1.2357071
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(4) - BEURTHE (C.) - La fabrication des composants en verre optique. - In Photoniques, 69, p. 40‑43 (2014). – 10.1051/photon/20146940
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(5) - WOLF (S.), TAUBER (R.N.) - Silicon processing for the VLSI era. Vol. 4: Deep-Submicron process technology. - Lattice Pr (2002).
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ANNEXES
Construction of a Fabry Perot interferometer (etalon) GB312534A
Improvements in or relating to lasers GB1017248A
HAUT DE PAGE2.1 Manufacturers – Suppliers – Distributors (non-exhaustive list)
P0.DE.O Polishing and Design for Optics, 13510 Eguilles, France http://www.podeo-optiques.fr/
BERTIN WINLIGHT, 84120 Pertuis, France https://www.bertin-winlight.fr/
FICHOU HEF Photonics, 94260 Fresnes, France https://optique-fichou.com/
CEA-Leti, 38054 Grenoble, France https://www.leti-cea.fr/cea-tech/letithal
SESO large precision optics and systems by Thales, 13290 Aix en Provence, France http://www.seso.com/
SOITEC, 38190 Bernin, France https://www.soitec.com/fr/
ST-Microelectonics https://www.st.com/content/st_com/en.html
X-Fab,...
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